Fahnestock - style

Certain metaphors shape our way of thinking

Repetitions/ forms lead us to fill in conclusions

Writing is not "essentialist" - style is something students have control of.

Crescendo "I came, I saw, I conquered"

Same goes with images - ape to man -- we forget that this is just one conception - other discoveries break single train.  Suggest that we progress smoothly, that time has a direction, that it happens consistently, and that humans are the "end product"

Darwin - evolutionary argument - our emotions, the way we respond to joy etc. derives from animals.
beta and alpha dog- antimetabole ("up" and "down"

see categories of word choice -

Waddell

 141

In the absence of certainty, in the absence of an objective foundation upon
hich to base belief, we must accept that both rational and appropriate are social
:nstructs. In light of the rational bias in Western culture, these two constructs
c e often used almost interchangeably to mean prudent, judicious, or sensible.
~ne goal of this study, however, is to broaden our concept of rationality, with
respect to both arguments and our respons~~s to those arguments, to include
emotional as well as logical appropriateness. 1
'} More accurately, one goal of this
study is to encourage wider acknowledgement and acceptance of the extent to
which our concept of rationality is already shaped by our sense of emotional as
well as logical appropriateness. Thereby, I hope to make the emotional component
of the decision-making process more amenable to criticism. From this
perspective, the question to ask of a behavior, judgment, decision, appeal, or
not "Is it rational?" or "Is it emotional?" but "Is it appropriate?"
which to
then we must simultaneously accept responsibility fOi
a for constructing truths.20 Among the truths we construct are our
determinations of what is rational and what is appropriate. A perennial objection
to constructivist arguments, however, is that they lead to a radical relativism in
which no adjudication between appropriate and inappropriate is possible since
no absolute principles apply across contexts.
Gadamer offers a solution to this problem, however, with his notion of a
"fusion of horizons" between the past and the present (Gadamer 273). From this
perspective, even in the absence of an objective, absolute foundation for belief,
we can still define general principles that cut across immediate contexts because
these immediate contexts are themselves situated within a larger and more stable,
yet still socially constructed, cultural context, what Gadamer calls our "thrownness."
That is, we are born (or "thrown") into a historical context, a culture, a
.... ,_,_,,u·u"' in whose values, prejudices, and presuppositions we are steeped. What
understanding we have, we gain not by freeing ourselves of these prejudices. but
by applying them; for we understand only by virtue of the questions we ask; those
questions are framed by our prejudices. We distinguish appropriate from inappropriate
prejudices when we expose our prejudices to the test of experience
(Gadamer 236-37).
Hence, the prevailing values and presuppositions of a culture cut across
immediate contexts and apply in a wide range of cases much as absolute
principles would. However, unlike moral absolutes, values and presuppositions
are socially constructed and, hence, mutable. The ideal rhetor both embodies and
appeals to what his or her society deems the best and most noble of its sentiments
and prejudices.21 When the times require it, the ideal rhetor helps the society adapt
to new and changing circumstances by helping it to define values that are
appropriate to the issues raised by these new, often more complex, conditions.22

continue on 142!
Appropriateness

Fortenbaugh

158
"And yet you are angry at such a man as myself, who is, I think, [1]26
inferior to no one in knowing and setting forth what needs to be done,
[2] a friend of the city, and [3] superior to money. For [1] the man who
knows [what needs to be done] and does not explain [it] clearly is in
the same condition as if he had not thought of [what needs to be done];
and [2] the man who has both but is full of ill will toward the city, will
not present a [recommendation] with the same loyalty; and [3] if this
too is present and yet conquered by money, everything will be sold for
this one thing.

Here we have Aristotle's triad in only slightly altered form. Practical wisdom
is divided into being able to determine a proper policy and to set it forth;
goodwill corresponds to being a friend of the city; and virtue is narrowed to
being superior to money, i.e., a particular moral virtue much looked for in
politicians. Pericles even anticipates Aristotle by remarking on the harmful
effects of the opposite condition: being unable to set forth a policy clearly,
having ill will toward the city, and being unable to resist money. The first of
these opposite conditions-being unable to set forth policy in a clear manner-
is narrower than Aristotle's lack of sense (1378all),27 but the general
idea is the same: an absence of practical wisdom inhibits counsel, as does an
absence of goodwill and virtue.

Technical proofs - ethos, logos, pathos - creates entheymemes - "techne" - art, greek
Atechnical proofs - "he says" witness, testimony etc ALSO - confessions (by torture)

wisdom, virtue, goodwill - create credibility (according to Aristotle)

Aristotle thought of ethos as separate from other areas of the speech.
Not about prior reputation - the blank slate - prove that you had good will.

Aristotle encouraging people to come to his school - craft art - assure the art of rhetoric with an ethical background.

Issue of taxonomy - he is seperating things out - but some of those work together.

Sayers

 Class notes --
all humans are unique, women are human, women are unique
 this would be the unstated

All humans equal, all men and women humans, all men and women are equal. She never states that.
definitions - equality - picks out
so, equality is another enthymeme
metonmymy - men and women part of the whole

Kaffir and Frenchman - possible and impossible

Arguing against maxims- so pointing out that the maxims are not true

"That is so obvious"...(318) implication

humor

Guides us to the "human being" point! - bits and pieces create the overall enthymeme -  so, a form of repetition - internalization; repetition when effectively done.

The technical communication

318
Even then, issues with being defined as a feminist

aggresive feminism?

meaningless slogans ... calls for qualifiers

Kaffir (ugh  - hate that term) and Frenchman

mechanically minded people and poets - what we are "meant" to do by nature/ inclination

319
"but, that a womanisjust as much an ordinary human being
as a man, with the same individual preferences, and with just as much right
to the tastes and preferences of an-indirid_ual. What is repugnant to every
human being is to be reckoned always as a member of a class and not as\
an individual person."

"What
is unreasonable and irritating is to assume that all ones tastes and preferences
' have to be cond1t10ned by the class to which one belongs. That has ,
been the very common error into which men have frequently fallen about J'r'
women-and it is the error into _which feminisq women are, perhaps, a little inclined to fall about themselves."

The individual woman  wanting education- not based as class

320
women shouldn't try to mould themselves into men's medieval academic world - unsound - ha!
"not even amusing"

"To this we may very properly reply: "It is true that they are u~ing.
Even on men they are remarkably unattractive. But, as you men have discovered
for yourselves, they are comfortable, they do not get in the way
of one's activities like skirts and they protect the wearer from draughts
about the ankles. As a human being, I like comfort and dislike draughts."

"But we are not such abandoned copy-cats as to
attach these useful garments to our bodies with braces. There we draw the
line. These machines of leather and elastic are unnecessary and unsuited
to the female form."

"The only decent reason for tackling any job is that
your job, and you want to do it."

321
Asserts Men, have taken jobs from the women

"It is useless to urge the modern woman to have twelve
children, like her grandmother. Where is she to put them when she has
got them? And what modern man wants to be bothered with them? It is
perfectly idiotic to take away women's traditional occupations and then complain
because she looks for new ones. E~--~()tnan is a human being-one
cannot repeat that too often-and a human being must have occupation, if
he or she is not to become a nuisance to the world."
Too funny!

" But they cannot have it both ways. If they are
1ing to adopt the very sound principle that the job should be done by the J
son who does it best, then that rule must be applied universally"

322
 Men get job and family

the office - everyone hates certain kinds of work

"In fact, there is perhaps
, only one human being in a thousand who is passionately interested in his
job for the job's sake. The difference is that if that one person in a thousand·
is a man, we say, simply, that he is passionately keen on his job; if she iS:
a woman, we say she is a freak."

323
no special knowledge of "a women's point of view"

" Even where women have special knowledge, they may disagree among themselves
like other specialists. Do doctors never quarrel or scientists disagree?
Are women __ ~eally not human, that they should be expected to toddle along
a~HOck llk.e-··sneepH-drink that people should be allowed to drink as
much wine and beer as they can afford and is good for them; Lady Astor
thinks nobody should be allowed to drink anything of the sort. Where is the
"woman's point of view"?"

324

affinity groups - times

Wallace - Topoi

388
The first major category is called the
Starting Points of Argument. These reflect
the premises on which contending
parties are in agreement. The first subclass
is labeled, Facts and Truths. By
facts Perelman means "objects of precise,
limited agreement," such as the
data acceptable in a given case. By
truths he means statements that emerge
from systems of thought, such as the
statements that embody the laws or principles
of a science or an art.

If rhetorical discourse by its
nature is concerned with people in general
rather than with people as specialists,
one wonders whether scientific
knowledge, particularly that represented
by the hard sciences, physics and chemistry,
can logically find a place in a system
of modern topoi. If there are clusters
of scientific generalities that should
be the property of all men, what are they
and who selects them? By refusing to
acknowledge the validity of this problem,
the scientists doomed the general
education movement in this country.
They poohpoohed the efforts of generalists
to decide upon ideas and materials
that should enter into general communication.


data
association and dissociation - "terrorist"  - political discourse - liberal/ teaparty etc.
390
"Topics like these, it should be observed,
demand elaboration through deductive
structures whose content and language
are the outcome of definitions.
The apparatus for finding topics of
disassociation is through the application
of what Perelman labels "philosophical
pairs." I present a few of his pairs:
Appearance / reality

lines of argument - argument/ counter argument

"Take the pair, appearance / reality. It is
a prototype of all conceptual disassociation,
says Perelman, for all our sensations
are responses to an object world.
Appearances are the immediately given;
reality is that which is independent of
experience. As a rule, people attach a
higher value to reality than to appearance.
The outcome is a master topic of
argument: Appearances differ, but reality
is fixed.

Perleman - style and content work in tandem to create an argument (MLK)

Jamieson

Clinton -
Use of enthymeme for Clinton to counter attacks.
Rhetorical creation of audience - women

Hairston

enthymeme
73
" Then the writer can look for places to find those elements.
15 An article by Lawrence Green on using the enthymeme
in writing classes also points out that having students define and
articulate the syllogism that underlies an argument helps them to
see whether their basic premises are value statements, normative
statements, or cause and effect statements. They can then judge
whether they are going to be abie to buiid a piausible argument
from their premises.16"

Rhetoric - syllogism
all men are mortal. Socrates is a man, therefore he is a mortal
BUT, there isn't a definitive "truth"
 
entheymeme- People who don't study fail. John is going to fail the test, he didn't study.
Premises tied into opinion.
so, all parts aren't true
60

First let's look at the ways in which the enthymeme has
misunderstood and oversimplified. Traditionally, both
cians and writing teachers have defined the enthymeme as
an abbreviated syllogism, compressed into a statement that leaves
out one of the premises. For example:
Formal syllogism: All graduates of Harvard are well educated.
Elaine is a Harvard graduate. Therefore she must be well educated.
61
Enthymeme: Elaine must be well educated since she graduated from
Harvard.

Syllogism: Science departments in major universities are controlled
by men. Men scientists discriminate against women scientists.
Therefore women scientists have trouble getting ahead in science
departments in major universities.
Enthymeme: Women scientists in departments at major universities
will have trouble getting ahead in their profession because their de~
partments are controlled by men.
The premise that male scientists discriminate against women scientists
is not expressed.

64
Russia enthymeme
not objective  - science, Russia, pro-technology
73
First, we can show students how to define the enthymeme that
underlies their arguments and then teach them how to identify the
common ground they are assuming exists between them and their
audience and to think about what information that audience has
that they can draw on for examples and support. As Professor
John Gage of the University of Oregon says in an article in Rhetoric
Review, spelling out the central enthymeme of an argument
doesn't necessarily solve the problems of composing that argument,
but it does bring them into view and help the writer to begin
to discover specific elements that can be used to persuade the
audience. Then the writer can look for places to find those elements.
15 An article by Lawrence Green on using the enthymeme
in writing classes also points out that having students define and
articulate the syllogism that underlies an argument helps them to
see whether their basic premises are value statements, normative
statements, or cause and effect statements. They can then judge
whether they are going to be abie to buiid a piausible argument
from their premises.16